Read an article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Read an article - Essay Example However, a contradiction in this theory came in the form of Hayek, who believes that it is not a problem of lack of private property, rather; the lack of knowledge that presents a challenge to socialism (Hoppe 143). This paper will examine the author of Socialism: A Property or Knowledge Problem and his line of thought. This is while focusing on what ideas he might offer the audience in terms of the concepts of socialism, and how it might affect them. Hans-Hermann Hoppe chose to discredit Hayek with his theory, saying that it was completely false and ridiculous. In an effort to discredit Hayek and his school of thought, he brings forth arguments to support Mises’s thesis. Mises’s thesis advocates for the presence of private property in land and production factors for there to be proper channels of economic calculation. There being a medium of exchange in the form of money, it would then be possible to calculate and make comparison of the economic situation. Hoppe makes the assumption that Hayek does not have the right arguments to support his thesis about socialism. Hayek purports that socialism and its ultimate flaw is that knowledge about certain circumstances of place and time exist in widely dispersed form, as the personal possession of various individuals (Hoppe 144). Hoppe may have an inclination toward Mises’s school of thought. ... The author, Hoppe, criticizes Hayek by asking a question that would be on the minds of the audience about why clubs, firms, and families exist if his line of thought were to be true. It is Hayek’s belief that a decentralized use of knowledge may lead to the solving of socialism’s ills. In this decentralized use of knowledge, individuals are left to their own devices and can make their decisions (Hoppe 144). To some extent, the above may be true. However, the author tries to explain that when individuals are left to their own decision making abilities, it would be next to impossible to ignore the central plan, as they would not be constrained by the normal things in society. He further claims that if the deciding factor or the solution to socialism’s problems was a decentralized form of thinking, it would be a daunting task to explain why the problems faced by socialism are different from those faced by any other social order. According to Mises and his followers, this line of thought is beside the point. Hoppe points out that it is not the existence of centralized knowledge, or the lack of the use of decentralized knowledge that brings problems to socialism, rather; the absence of property. This ultimately leads to the lack or absence of prices (Hoppe 145). The author claims that Hayek came to realize what Mises had said, but tried to integrate it into his own thesis. This, according to Hoppe, was an elaborate attempt to create a higher and much better theory or line of thinking with regards to the socialism theory, which failed miserably. It is clear from the above that agreeing that socialism’s central or key problem lies in the lack of knowledge. According to the author, private property is the only channel through which information can be transferred.

Case study for Tourism and hospitality Workforce Essay

Case study for Tourism and hospitality Workforce - Essay Example Customers determine where they need to be served. Employees need to know this because hotels operate in the service industry (Hsu, 2005). The main point is for the front office staff to know the visitors before and after opening the guest door. It is imperative for employees to always be alert and aware of what goes around them. This is the reason Joe engages with employee selection, recruitment, and training. Interpersonal communication The hiring process marks the start of getting a good front office employee. Since the size of the hotel is small, Joe takes over the responsibilities of the human resources management. He runs the functions that include job analysis, recruiting, and evaluation (Hotel, Catering & Institutional Management Association, 2011). When he carries out these duties, Joe closes the gap between the actual performance and the perfect necessities of the hotel to attain superior organizational success through profitability (Rhodri, 2010). Joe achieves this by enhan cing hotel objectives that utilize, develop, and train employees. Joe grew through the ranks from a front office employee to a General Manager. Therefore, he understands the primary factors of success in the hotel, tourism, and hospitality industry. His involvement in almost the entire process of acquiring and developing employees serves as a motivational factor to the success of Sunrise hotel. Interpersonal communication initiatives motivates employees, maximizes their abilities, and in the process increases productivity and economic outcomes (Kerr, 2012). It creates a working environment where employees become creative, innovative, develop teamwork, and spirit. The channels of communication at Sunrise hotel are clear indicators of the importance of interpersonal communication. Motivation Joe’s actions and management style help Sunrise hotel to maintain a very low rate of employee turnover that is at twenty-five percent. It is not surprising that a bigger size of the twenty- five percent goes to students on internship and attachment that leave to develop their careers elsewhere (Croatian Tourist Board & Institute for Tourism, 2010). The rest of employees tend to associate more with the success of Sunrise hotel than individual success. Joe makes sure that through his polices, employees integrate their plans with both hotel objectives and strategies. Strategically, Sunrise hotel employees manage to develop a new working culture, style, organizational structure that targets success (Rosyidie, 2012). Their quality and commitment as well as motivation contribute fully to the realization of Sunrise hotel goals. Joe’s system of running affairs has various crucial benefits. Some of the benefits are general and do not require complex strategies. His management style helps Sunrise hotel to manage its workforce in a better and more efficient way. This method makes sure that every employee puts his or her major target as customer satisfaction. The hotel ensu res that employees use their potential to the maximum and in the process perform their work better. Leadership Style Joe focuses mainly on hotel profitability and employee development. This results in high degree of workforce management and efficiency. Courtesy of Joe, Sunrise hotel has an almost perfect yet modest structure of organizational change. His efficiency justifies the

Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Report - Essay Example Figure 1 highlights that 40% of the world’s current population lives in arid regions (Balon and Dehnad, 2010). In developing countries in Africa and Asia, nearly a quarter of the population lives in arid and semi arid regions, compared to just 11% in Europe and 6% in Oceania. Figure 1 – Population Who Live in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions Source: www.water-asar.de/lang1/water_shortness_in_arid_and_semi-arid_regions_-_ar.html 3. Why Are There Water Shortages? The Welech Institute (2006) highlight many factors leading to water shortages. These include economic development, political and financial deficits, lack of information and education of population and lack of adapted technologies and know how. Figure 2 highlights several other key factors, and explains how this leads to water scarcity. Figure 2 – Reasons For Water Shortages Contributing Factor Explanation High Population Growth UN Population Division states population in developing regions (containing the most a rid areas) grew from 1.6 billion in 1950, to 4.5 billion by 2005, and is predicted to increase to 8 billion by 2050, which will put enormous stress on water supplies. Climate Change Increased temperature rise between 2-4Â °c, affecting climatic weather patterns with less rainfall and higher evaporation rates in arid regions. Higher Demand for Irrigation 70% of the world’s freshwater is currently used for irrigation, and agriculture is the biggest consumer of fresh water in arid regions. Groundwater Depletion Over pumping of groundwater (160 m? of non renewable groundwater extracted every year) Contamination of Water Resources Due to leaching of agricultural pesticides and fertilizers, domestic and industrial wastage, and untreated sewage. Adapted from Welech Institute Report (2006) 4. The Need for Action Figure 3 – Johannesburg 2002 Logo 5. South Africa and it’s Arid Regions Figure 4 – South Africa’s Arid Regions 6. Measures For Water Provision 6. 1. South Africa’s Demand For Water The National Water Resource Strategy documents of DWAF states that overall water demand is expected to increase by approximately 9% from 2000-2025 (DWAF, 2004). By 2025 DWAF states that there will need to be both reduced consumption and increase supply to maintain water security and allow for sustainable development. Therefore substantial investments are required for water infrastructure and other water management strategies. 6.2. Planning and Management The Development of a National Water Resource Strategy designed to address the management of the water resources to meet the development goals of the country; Identifies scarce water areas and constrains development as well as development opportunities where water resources are available Industrial users required to develop and submit their water directly from a water resource (DWAF, 2004) 6.3. Groundwater Extraction and Mixed Use of Surface and Groundwater Figure 5 – Groundwater Extra ction 6.4. Artificial Groundwater Recharge Refers to the process of transferring water into aquifers, such as rainfall and treated waste water. Advantages include; provides security during drought and dry seasons provides storage of

Effect of Marriages on Crime Rates Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Effect of Marriages on Crime Rates - Article Example In this paper the authors through evidence are illustrating that marriage can reduce the crimes committed by an individual as it can involve the individual in social bonds. According to the authors the research done by them is however not accurate as all the figures in an individual's life cannot be kept constant and this restrains the authors to conclude authentically that marriage reduces the crime rates. However the evidence given by the authors supports the notion that rate of crime does get affected because of the bond of marriage. The authors hypothesize that getting involved in social bonds and activities may help one to avoid committing crime. According to the authors marriage is a social bond which inflicts social responsibility and compulsions on one individual which further diverts the individual from committing a crime. The change in routine is also marked as important by the authors as it helps to change the mood and passion of an individual. It makes one individual spend more time with his family rather than friends (Warr 1998: 183). Furthermore the monitoring activity done by the spouses is supposed to be helpful to divert one from criminal activities. The supervision done by spouses can help men to avoid committing any crime (Waite and Gallagher 2000: 24).

Principles of Economics Essay Example for Free

Principles of Economics Essay Suggest how an economist would approach the problem of alcohol abuse. Economics is about scarcity and choice. It is assumed that all human beings are rational thinkers hence would always choose to consume products that would give them maximum satisfaction or utility. Mankiw (2011, p. 6) argues that rational people ‘systematically and purposefully do the best to achieve objectives given available opportunity.’ Given a choice among alternatives and with scarce resources, one would evaluate the benefits and costs of consuming an extra unit of a product and would only take a decision only if marginal benefit is greater than marginal cost. In this case, to solve the alcohol abuse problem, one has to consider marginal benefits and marginal costs derived from consuming an extra unit of alcohol and since excessive drinking has more costs than benefits, one would refrain from alcohol. The opportunity cost foregone by choosing to abuse alcohol is too high compared to satisfaction derived; money spent on alcohol can do many other things such as feeding the family, education for children, and investments among others. Besides, the person may have health problems thus adding to the costs. By considering all these factors, a rational person would refrain from alcohol abuse. Heyne (2000) acknowledges the role played by incentives in directing behavior. For him, rational people usually respond to incentives or are induced to act by them. Assuming alcohol abusers are rational, imposing taxes on alcohol substances would eliminate the problem. This would follow the law of demand which states that other things being constant, if the price of a good increase, the quantity demanded of the good decreases. Taxes have the effect of increasing alcohol prices and this would automatically mean that the abusers would desist from alcohol consumption or cut their consumption. Analyze how prescription drugs affect the demand and supply of other products  and services in this country. Prescription drugs are drugs prescribed by a medical officer to a patient and are regulated by legislation unlike the over-the-counter drugs which can be old to anyone. If a patient is under prescription drugs, he/she buys the drugs despite the price of the drugs. An increase or decrease in price of the drugs therefore has little or no effect on the quantity demanded by an individual (McCarthy Schafermeyer, 2007). The drugs are provided by the National Health Insurance and have no close substitutes. The increase in price of the drugs thus affects all the sectors of healthcare industry such as patients and private insurers. Due to increased costs, the private insurers are forced to increase the cost of their services in case they have to offer such drugs and this may lead to low demand for their services. The patients are also required to get medical prescriptions before obtaining the drugs thus the demand for the medicine may be low compared to over-the-counter drugs. Use of prescription drugs also has an effect on demand for other healthcare services such as hospitalization. The prescription drugs also affect supply of generic products as manufacturers have patents to supply the new drugs for some years. Formulate a reason why elasticity of demand is an important consideration when analyzing the impact of a shift in supply and why the elasticity of supply is an important consideration when analyzing the impact of shift in demand. The price elasticity of demanded which is percentage change in quantity demanded over percentage change in price shows consumers responsiveness to price changes. (McKenzie Lee, 2006). It is an important consideration when analyzing the impact of a shift in supply and in determining if the firm should raise or lower its price. The supply curve is upward sloping showing a positive relationship between price and quantity supplied other things held constant. However, in long-run, those factors do change causing a shift in supply curve. Such factors include; input prices, technology, expectations and number of sellers in the market. For example, an increase in input prices such as labor would lead to a decrease in supply thus shifting the supply curve to the left. This results in low output which is  not able to satisfy the market demand thus pushing the prices up. An increase in prices according to the law of demand would lead to a fall in demand leading to excess supply and consequently fall in prices until an equilibrium is reached (Mankiw, 2011). However, the fall in quantity demanded will be determined by elasticity of demand. If the product has inelastic demand, an increase in price as a result of shift in supply would have no effect on demand thus suppliers would get more revenue. If demand for the product is elastic, an increase in price would lead to a massive reduction in quantity demanded and consequently lowering of prices and revenue. Shifts in demand curve are caused by other factors that affect demand except price. These include; income, price of related goods, tastes and preferences, expectations and number of buyers (Mankiw, 2011). Elasticity of supply shows the producers’ responsiveness to changes in price and is important in evaluating the impact of a shift in demand. For example, an increase in income would lead to an increase in demand depending on the type of the good thereby shifting the demand curve to the right. If it is an inferior good, an increase in income would lead to decrease in demand shifting the curve to the left. In this case, the good is normal. A shift in demand curve to the right would lead to an increase in price and quantity supplied. However, this is determined by elasticity of supply. If the good is elastic, a small increase in price would lead to a large increase in quantity supplied. This would in effect lead to excess supply forcing the prices to fall thus inducing an increase in quantity demanded but if the supply is inelastic, an increase in price would lead to a small increase in quantity supplied not enough to offset costs hence fall in revenue. Provide two examples of increasing-cost industries in your state and propose why they would have a positively sloped supply curve. According to McEachern (2010) increasing-cost industries occur as a result of entry of new firms due to increase in demand. An increase in demand results in high production costs and the average long-run average cost curve of each firm to shift upwards. The market is competitive and thus new firms enter the industry to share in the abnormal profits made by existing firms. However, as new firms enter, they compete thereby pushing up the production costs leading to low  profit or some firms are forced out of the market. This depends on how far the market supply curve shifts to interact with demand curve. The industry would have a positively sloped supply curve as an indication of the increasing costs. Examples of increasing-cost industries are housing construction and mobile companies which bid up prices for labor and raw materials. Suggest how, under certain conditions, a perfectly competitive market is economically efficient. A perfectly competitive market cant innovate, because all products are homogeneous and cant take advantage of cooperation. But if you define efficiency in a particularly useless way and choose only one definition of economic efficiency as well then there are certain conditions under which a perfectly competitive market is economically efficient.

Genetic Engineering of BT Cotton

Genetic Engineering of BT Cotton INTRODUCTION BT cotton Cotton and other monocultured crops require an intensive use of pesticides as various types of pests attack these crops causing extensive damage. Over the past 40 years, many pests have developed resistance to pesticides. cSo far, the only successful approach to engineering crops for insect tolerance has been the addition of Bt toxin, a family of toxins originally derived from soil bacteria. The Bt toxin contained by the Bt crops is no different from other chemical pesticides, but causes much less damage to the environment. These toxins are effective against a variety of economically important crop pests but pose no hazard to non-target organisms like mammals and fish. Three Bt crops are now commercially available: corn, cotton, and potato. As of now, cotton is the most popular of the Bt crops: it was planted on about 1.8 million acres (728437 ha) in 1996 and 1997. The Bt gene was isolated and transferred from a bacterium bacillus thurigiensis to American cotton. The American cotton was subsequently crossed with Indian cotton to introduce the gene into native varieties. The Bt cotton variety contains a foreign gene obtained from bacillus thuringiensis. This bacterial gene, introduced genetically into the cotton seeds, protects the plants from bollworm (A. lepidoptora), a major pest of cotton. The worm feeding on the leaves of a BT cotton plant becomes lethargic and sleepy, thereby causing less damage to the plant Cotton is a soft, staple fiber that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant, a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, India and Africa. The fiber most often is spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile, which is the most widely used natural-fiber cloth in clothing today. It is a natural fibre. The English name, which began to be used circa 1400, derives from the Arabic meaning cotton. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, In the Southern United States, cotton was known as King Cotton because of the great economic and cultural influence it had there. Cotton has been spun, woven, and dyed since prehistoric times. It clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, and their use spread to the Mediterranean countries. In the 1st cent. Arab traders brought fine muslin and calico to Italy and Spain. The Moors introduced the cultivation of cotton into Spain in the 9th cent. Fustians and dimities were woven there and in the 14th cent. in Venice and Milan, at first with a linen warp. Little cotton cloth was imported to England before the 15th cent., although small amounts were obtained chiefly for candlewicks. By the 17th cent. the East India Company was bringing rare fabrics from India. Native Americans skillfully spun and wove cotton into fine garments and dyed tapestries. Cotton fabrics found in Peruvian tombs are said to belong to a pre-Inca culture. In color and texture the ancient Peruvian and Mexican textiles resemble those f ound in Egyptian tombs. Field trials have n that farmers who grew the Bt variety obtained 25%-75% more cotton than those who grew the normal variety. Also, Bt cotton requires only two sprays of chemical pesticide against eight sprays for normal variety. According to the director general of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, India uses about half of its pesticides on cotton to fight the bollworm menace. Organic cotton Organic cotton is cotton that is grown without insecticide or pesticide. Worldwide, cotton is a pesticide-intensive crop, using approximately 25% of the worlds insecticides and 10% of the worlds pesticides.Organic agriculture uses methods that are ecological, economical, and socially sustainable and denies the use of agrochemicals and artificial fertilizers. Instead, organic agriculture uses crop rotation, the growing of different crops than cotton in alternative years. The use of insecticides is prohibited; organic agriculture uses natural enemies to suppress harmful insects. The production of organic cotton is more expensive than the production of conventional cotton. Although toxic pollution from synthetic chemicals is eliminated, other pollution-like problems may remain, particularly run-off. Organic cotton is produced in organic agricultural systems that produce food and fiber according to clearly established standards. Organic agriculture prohibits the use of toxic and persiste nt chemical pesticides and fertilizers, as well as genetically modified organisms. It seeks to build biologically diverse agricultural systems, replenish and maintain soil fertility, and promote a healthy environment. Bacillus thuringiensis Bacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium of the genus Bacillus. Additionally, B. thuringiensis also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well as on the dark surface of plants.[1] B. thuringiensis was discovered 1901 in Japan by Ishiwata and 1911 in Germany by Ernst Berliner, who discovered a disease called Schlaffsucht in flour moth caterpillars. B. thuringiensis is closely related to B. cereus, a soil bacterium, and B. anthracis, the cause of anthrax: the three organisms differ mainly in their plasmids. Like other members of the genus, all three are aerobes capable of producing endospores.[1] Upon sporulation, B. thuringiensis forms crystals of proteinaceous insecticidal ÃŽÂ ´-endotoxins (Cry toxins) which are encoded by cry genes.[2] Cry toxins have specific activities against species of the orders Lepidoptera (Moths and Butterflies), Diptera (Flies and Mosquitoes) and Coleoptera (Beetles). Thus, B. thuringiensis serves as an important reservoir of Cry toxins and cry genes for production of biological insecticides and insect-resistant genetically modified crops. When insects ingest toxin crystals the alkaline pH of their digestive tract causes the toxin to become activated. It becomes inserted into the insects gut cell membranes forming a pore resulting in swelling, cell lysis and eventually killing the insect. Genetically modified cotton Genetically modified (GM) cotton was developed to reduce the heavy reliance on pesticides. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis naturally produces a chemical harmful only to a small fraction of insects, most notably the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, and flies, and harmless to other forms of life. The gene coding for BT toxin has been inserted into cotton, causing cotton to produce this natural insecticide in its tissues. In many regions the main pests in commercial cotton are lepidopteran larvae, which are killed by the BT protein in the transgenic cotton that they eat. This eliminates the need to use large amounts of broad-spectrum insecticides to kill lepidopteran pests (some of which have developed pyrethroid resistance). This spares natural insect predators in the farm ecology and further contributes to non-insecticide pest management. BT cotton is ineffective against many cotton pests, however, such as plant bugs, stink bugs, aphids, etc.; depending on circumstances it may still be desirable to use insecticides against these. Genetically modified cotton is widely used throughout the world. However, researchers have recently published the first documented case of in-field pest resistance to GM cotton. The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) said that, worldwide, GM cotton was planted on an area of 67,000 km ² in 2002. This is 20% of the worldwide total area planted in cotton. The U.S. cotton crop was 73% GM in 2003. Cotton has gossypol, a toxin that makes it inedible. However, scientists have silenced the gene that produces the toxin, making it a potential food crop. Uses Spores and crystalline insecticidal proteins produced by B. thuringiensis are used as specific insecticides under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly, with little or no effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, and most other beneficial insects. The Belgian company Plant Genetic Systems was the first company (in 1985) to develop genetically engineered (tobacco) plants with insect tolerance by expressing cry genes from B. thuringiensis. B. thurigiensis-based insecticides are often applied as liquid sprays on crop plants, where the insecticide must be ingested to be effective. It is thought that the solubilized toxins form pores in the midgut epithelium of susceptible larvae. Recent research has suggested that the midgut bacteria of susceptible larvae are required for B. thuringiensis insecticidal activity. Genetic engineering for pest control Bt crops (in corn and cotton) were planted on 281,500 km ² in 2006 (165,600 km ² of Bt corn and 115900 km ² of Bt cotton). This was equivalent to 11.1% and 33.6% respectively of global plantings of corn and cotton in 2006.] Claims of major benefits to farmers, including poor farmers in developing countries, have been made by advocates of the technology, and have been challenged by opponents. The task of isolating impacts of the technology is complicated by the prevalence of biased observers, and by the rarity of controlled comparisons (such as identical seeds, differing only in the presence or absence of the Bt trait, being grown in identical situations). The main Bt crop being grown by small farmers in developing countries is cotton, and a recent exhaustive review of findings on Bt cotton by respected and unbiased agricultural economists concluded that the overall balance sheet, though promising, is mixed. Economic returns are highly variable over years, farm type, and geograp hical location Advantages There are several advantages in expressing Bt toxins in transgenic Bt crops: The level of toxin expression can be very high thus delivering sufficient dosage to the pest. The toxin expression is contained within the plant system and hence only those insects that feed on the crop perish. The toxin expression can be modulated by using tissue-specific promoters, and replaces the use of synthetic pesticides in the environment. The latter observation has been well documented world-wide Possible problems The most celebrated problem ever associated with Bt crops was the claim that pollen from Bt maize could kill the monarch butterfly. This report was puzzling because the pollen from most maize hybrids contains much lower levels of Bt than the rest of the plant and led to multiple follow-up studies. In the end, it appears that the initial study was flawed; based on the way the pollen was collected, they collected and fed non-toxic pollen that was mixed with anther walls that did contain Bt toxin. The weight of the evidence is that BT crops do not pose a risk to the monarch butterfly. There was also a report in Nature, that Bt maize was contaminating maize in its center of origin. Nature later concluded that the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper. A subsequent large-scale study failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca.

A nature and sources of data

A nature and sources of data Methodology Nature and sources of data The specific data required for this study were from primary and secondary sources. Secondary data were obtained from the Ibadan North Local Government Authority and Ibadan Waste Management Board. Analogue map of the study area was obtained from the Local Government headquarters. Land use map (1995), road map, elevation data, rail line data were made available from Ibadan Waste Management Board. A field visit was paid in order to determine the names of features on the analogue map in the attribute field of the digitised copy. GPS was used to capture points on ground for analysis. Hardware and Software The hardware used in this study included PC Pentium IV (RAM 250 MB, HD 2 GB), HP DeskJet 1220C color printer, HP Scanjet 2400, Logic Trace digitiser, Sony digital camera (8mp) and Garmin E trex 12 channels GPS receiver. The software used in preparing and analysis of the data included MS Excel, ArcView 3.3 with Network Analyst and Super decision for the AHP aspect. Digitising The base map was transformed into digital map for use in GIS by digitising using the platform of ArcView 3.3 GIS software. Digitising a map means converting an analogue map into a digital form by encoding the spatial coordinates of features on the map through the process of on-screen digitising. A digital map that is recognised by the computer in a GIS environment is the end-product of this exercise. Data analysis Five major GIS spatial operations were performed to achieve the set of objective for this project. These are, buffering, overlay, query, network analysis and nearest neighbourhood analysis Buffering It is a spatial analysis known as proximity analysis, generating zones of a given distance around a feature theme. It forms a polygon around a point, line or polygon theme by locating its boundaries at a specified distance. GIS can create buffer zones around selected features. The roads and rails were buffered at a radius of 100m (Javaheri 2006) while the streets were buffered at a radius of 30m. Overlay Overlay was performed to identify areas that meet all the set criteria and to show areas that do not meet the criteria. GIS can overlay different pieces of information. It helps in understanding the association between network analysis and specific geographic features. Ibadan North map and other data were overlaid to get possible sites. Query This command is used to answer the question of ‘what is and where is in GIS. The land use was queried to get the open space while the elevation was queried to get the suitable elevation. Network analysis Arc view Network Analyst is a powerful extension that provides network-based spatial analysis including routing, travel directions, closest facility, etc. This was made use of in this study to show the possible routes of connection from the transfer stations to the disposal site. Nearest Neighbour Analysis The nearest neighbour analysis helps to determine the nature of the distribution of the features which can be clustered or scattered. It is employed in this study to determine the pattern of skip distribution. If the index is less than 1, the pattern exhibits clustering and if greater than 1, the trend is toward dispersion. Cartographic model ‘The cartographic model is simply a graphical representation of data and procedures used in a study (Eastman 1995). It is a set of interacting ordered map operations that act on raw data as well as derive intermediate data to simulate a spatial decision making process (Tomlin, 1990). It shows all the layers of information starting with the base maps on the left and ending with the end product on the right. Its purposes are to help the analyst organise and structure the procedures that the analysis to be performed in a study will require and to identify the data needed to complete them. LU= Land-use The above cartographic model was constructed based on the following parameters: The land use maps was queried because site location must fall outside the land use areas so that settlement will not be polluted by the exhume/stench from the waste. The roads and rail were buffered at a distance of 100m and the streets were buffered at a distance of 30meters to create a good distance between them and the landfill site. The elevation was queried to get an elevation greater than or equal to 222meters so that it will not be located in an area that is too low because of water flow. Questionnaire Questionnaires were designed to seek public opinion as they include part of decision-making in a study such as this. 720 questionnaires were distributed among the various stakeholders, which include the public, planners and officials of Ibadan Municipal Government and Waste Management Board. In order to identify the criteria for siting, opinions from planners were required. Questionnaires were given out to 10 experts as part of public participation. Questionnaires were also distributed among the people living in the major areas where skips were to be allocated. These areas include, Oje market, Gbenla, Adeoyo, Danadaru, Premier Hotel, Jemebewon, Poly road, Cultural Centre, Bodija, Ikolaba, Oyo Secretariat. 60% of the questionnaires were distributed around the southern part as it was observed during field visit that most illegal dumpsites are around that area. Criteria for selection To arrive at the selection criteria for choosing a site for landfill, relevant literature and decision makers opinion were sought. Site must be close to at least a street with a buffer of 30m (Decision makers preference) Site must not be too far from a transfer station (Decision makers preference) Site must be 3km from residential areas, with the exception of areas with barriers (trees, hills, etc.) (Banar et al. 2007). There should be a minimum distance of 100m between site and roads (Decision makers preference, Javaheri et al. 2006) Site must be on a suitable soil. Site should be constructed in areas which do not have an important economic or ecological value (Lober 1995, Siddiqui et al. 1996). The AHP component Finally, in the second step, a decision hierarchical structure using the AHP was developed and implemented to rank the two suitable sites according to their suitability for landfill siting. The AHP can assist in identifying and weighting selection of criteria and expediting the process of decision making (Sener 2010). Preferences of decision makers can be included in a planning problem within an AHP. The problems then structured in a hierarchical form to allow for weighting of the preferences by pairwise comparisons (Phua and Minowa 2005). The AHP typically involves establishing a graphical representation of problem as a hierarchy, weighting the elements at each level of the hierarchy and calculating the weights (Phua and Minowa 2005). The AHP methodology compares criteria or alternatives with respect to a criterion, in a natural, pairwise mode. To achieve this, the AHP uses a fundamental scale of absolute numbers (Table 3.2) that has been tested in practice and validated by physical and decision problem experiments. It is perhaps the most widely used decision making approach today. The AHP is generally used to support other methodologies such as in deciding how many servers to employ in a queuing situation taking into account factors like costs, waiting times and human frustration. Several other applications include resource allocation, forecasting, etc. The Super Decisions software (Saaty 2003) was used in developing the AHP model. A Super Decisions model generally comprises clusters of elements rather than elements arranged in levels. Clusters contain node which represent the elements in them. For example, the criteria for siting a landfill may include proximity to transportation networks, proximity to waste collection centres, etc. These represent the nodes in the ‘Criteria cluster. When a line joins a cluster with another cluster, it means the nodes in both clusters are connected together. The main aim of using the AHP is to assign weights to criteria and come out with the best alternative.